The complete history of Gondar: Africa's city of castles (1636-1900)

Journal of African cities chapter 8

Perched on the mountains of northern Ethiopia, the city of Gondar is one of Africa's best known historic capitals.

For nearly three centuries, Gondar served as the political and cultural center of Ethiopia. Its impressive architectural monuments and artistic production constitute some of Africa's greatest cultural accomplishments.

This article outlines Gondar's history since its founding in 1636.

Maps showing the location of Gondar and the city’s landmarks¹

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The founding of an imperial capital: Gondar during the reign of Fasilädäs (1632-1667)

The years following the expulsion of the Portuguese and the Jesuits from Ethiopia in 1632 were marked by a cultural revival in Ethiopia and a reduction in the political upheavals of the preceding century. A large corpus of manuscripts documenting Ethiopia's cultural and political history were composed during this period, new schools of painting were developed and distinctive architectural styles emerged in several urban settlements across the empire.²

The principal sources of Ethiopia's cultural revival were internal, following processes of rediscovery and reconstitution of the institutions established during the preceding period. While relations with Europe ended, the Ethiopian state initiated contacts with its neighbors in the red sea and Indian ocean world, normalizing relations with formerly antagonistic Muslim peers and sending envoys as far as the courts of the Ottoman and Mughal empires. Its from the wide range of influences that the Ethiopian monarchs borrowed a variety of techniques, styles and materials which influenced the cultural revival.³

The most significant development was the founding of the city of Gondar, as the main capital of the Ethiopian state. The establishment of a permanent capital represented a decisive break from the earlier tradition of a mobile capital, where the residence of the King and his court moved in circuits around the empire. Royal capitals such as Gondar and its predecessors in the 16th century such as Imfraz, Gorgorá, and Dánqáz, were large metropolises protected by stone fortresses that housed a cosmopolitan population. The bulk of the urban population were the Habäsha Christians, but also included significant communities of local Betä Ǝsraʾel and Muslims, as well as small numbers of Egyptians, Greeks and Indians.⁴

Around the year 1636, the Emperor Fasilädäs settled at Gondar. Over the rest of his reign, Fasiladas constructed several churches, palaces, bridges in Gondar, creating the largest concentration of monuments in Ethiopia since the establishment of Lalibela. For the next century and a half, Fasiladas' sucessors would follow his initiative, adding more buildings to the city and transforming it into a large cosmopolitan metropolis.⁵

Despite its monumental urban character, Gondar was not an aberration in the Ethiopia's urban history. The new capital was simply the largest among several towns which dotted the Ethiopian highlands, these towns were the central nodes in the Gondarine administration, alongside their churches and monasteries.⁶

Gondar's iconic architecture was a direct product of the redefinition of Ethiopian concepts of kingship enforced by Susǝnyos and accomplished by his heir Fasiladas. "Unlike his forbears, the king no longer defined his attributes by waging war and expressing his religious devotion alone, but also by indulging in aesthetic, “elevated” experiences—the new architecture therefore served to underscore the ruler’s sense of refinement and good taste".⁷

Fasilidas founded his capital within the region just north of lake Tana, where his predecessors had been most active. During the 4th year of his reign (around 1636), he established his royal camp near the preexisting Adabay Iyasus Church. He then commisioned the construction of the Madhane Alam church close to what was to become the castle complex of Gondar.⁸

Fasil begun the construction of his palace in the late 1630s, which would become the largest of the Gondar castles. The iconic castle of Fasil was a battlemented two-storey structure with a square castellated tower, four round corner towers, and doors and windows delineated with red tuff. According to an external account by a visiting Yemeni envoy in 1648, it was "the most beautiful of glorious marvels built of stone and lime".⁹

castle of Fasiladas¹⁰

Plan of Fasiladas’ castle, by Víctor Manuel Fernández

The lead mason for Fasiladas' castle was most likely 'Abdal Kerim, an artisan from Mughal India who is known to have participated in designing the construction of Susenyos' palace at Danqaz alongside the Ethiopian architect Gábrá Kristos. Kerim and his Muslim-Indian peers had been brought to Ethiopia during Susenyos' reign and joined the diverse community of artesans who participated in the empire's cultural revival.¹¹

While some of the castle's architectural features were evidently anteceded by the styles introduced during Susenyos' reign that were a blend of Mughal and Portuguese fashions, the masons of Fasiladas and his sucessors discontinued some of Susenyos' architectural styles and added new ones. The model of construction used at Fasiladas' castle would also be applied in the construction of the Guzara palace, the bath at Qaha, as well as the restoration of the Maryam cathedral of Aksum.¹²

Following the establishment of Gondar, many of the highest figures of the Ethiopian church took up residence in the new capital and their power became increasingly urban. These include the Abun (metropolitan), the ǝḉḉäge (2nd head of the church) and the Aqabe Sa'at (3rd head of the church). The residence of the Abun was called Abuna bet, and was situated northwest of the castle palaces, while the Ecage resided in a well-built quarter called Ecage Bet.¹³

Fasil’s bath

Section of the Gondar city walls

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Gondar during the reign of Yohannes and Iyasu (1682-1706)

After a relatively long reign, Fasiladas passed away in 1667 and was suceeded by his son Yohannes I at Gondar. Like his predecessor, Yohannes built and endowed several churches across the state, and also commissioned the construction of a number of buildings in Gondar including a chancery and a library¹⁴. Yohannes is also credited with the construction and endowment of the Kwe'erata Re'esu chapel in the castle complex.¹⁵

Unlike Fasil, Yohannes' buildings were entirely constructed by local masons who were led by an Ethiopian architect named Wáldá Giyorgis. This master mason is credited with the construction and designs of the structures built for both Emperor Yohannes I and his son Iyasu I. He is described in one chronicle as a man "endowed with intelligence," and in another chronicle as "able, intelligent, and of good renown."¹⁶

Gondar was major commercial center during the 17th century. It was the site of a flourishing market, which was held on "a wide, spacious place" near the principal palace. The city's commerce, like that of many earlier cities, was largely dominated by local Muslim merchants. The domestic economy largely consisted of agro-pastoral products as well as clothmaking, leatherworking, blacksmithing and other crafts. Exports included civet, ivory, gold, captives and aromatic plants, which were exchanged for Indian textiles, firearms and other items.¹⁷

Following a religious edict in 1668 and 1678, Yohannes moved most of the Muslim population of Gondar and the main market to a new quarter of the city. By the late 18th century, this Muslim quarter had grown significantly and constituted nearly a third of the city's population. The head merchant of Gondar was titled Nagadras, and such served as the "principal merchant" of the royal court, he also collected taxes from his quarter and settled minor legal concerns.¹⁸

Yohannes also created a quarter for the Beta-Israel, known as Kaila Meda that was located in the western section of the city. The Beta-Israel comprised the most significant artisanal population in Gondar. They were employed as masons, blacksmiths, leatherworkers and carpenters and would play a significant role in the construction of the city's monuments during and after his reign.¹⁹

Yohannes was suceeded by Iyasu after the his death in 1682. Iyasu's reign from 1682 to 1706 epitomized the Gondarine period at its height, he campaigned frequently to expand the empire's borders and instituted significant reforms in the state's economy. Iyasu constructed a large palace as mentioned above, as well as the churches of Addabābāy Takla Hāymānot in december 1682, and Dabra Berhān Sellāsē in January 1694. The church was consecrated with great pomp, with the king proceeding on horseback carrying the altar stone up to the church.²⁰

Several constructions at Gondar were also undertaken during his reign, including the Wešeba Gemb which served as a medical thermal bath, as well as the Feqr Gemb which was said to be allocated to the monarch’s paramours.²¹Most of the masons of the period were drawn from a diverse group of local artesans. The split-cane ceiling of the palace of Iyasu was constructed by Beta-Israel artisans, while resident Greek artisans decorated the same palace with mirrors from Venice set in gilt frames, and wooden casings covered with ivory.²²

Chancery and Library of Yohannes

Iyasu’s Palace

Debre Berhan Selassie and Wešeba Gemb, photos by Linda De Volder

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Gondar from the reign of Takla Haymanot to Bakaffa (1706-1730)

Near the end of Iyasu's reign, an earthquake struck the region of Gondar in 1704, destroying parts of the castle complex and nearby churches.²³ Around the year 1705, Iyasu's health begun to deteriorate and one of his sons named Takla Haymanot eventually took over in a palace coup against Iyasu's preferred sucessor Dawit. Iyasu was later assassinated in 1706 and the empire briefly descended into a period of political turmoil.²⁴

Four emperors suceeded Iyasu in just 15 years during a period marked by with several rebellions. Takla Haymanot was assassinated in 1708 and suceeded by his uncle Tewoflos. The emperor Tewoflos had been working with Yost'os, a great-grandson of Yohannes, who would suceeded Tewoflos in 1711 upon the latter's untimely death. Tewoflos is credited with restoring and completed churches built by Yohannes in Gondar and across the empire. He also instituted a memorial fast for Iyasu at Gondar, and founded a church dedicated to Yohannes. But his brief reign ended just three years and he was suceeded by Yost'os who would also be deposed shortly after.²⁵

During the power struggles that characterized this period, the palace regiment (wellaj) which was created during the early Gondarine period become kingmakers. First mentioned in the chronicle of Iyasu I of 1689, they gained notoriety during the latter years of Yost'os. As powerful state officials in the capital held a council that chose to appoint Yost'os's son to succeed him, the wellaj locked up the palace, executed several councilors and nominated Dawit instead.²⁶

Dawit had a rather unremarkable reign characterized by rebellions and religious disputes within the church. His construction activities at Gondar were limited a church dedicated to saint Michael adjacent to the castle compound in 1716. The wellaj again intervened in the succession process by seizing the palace and proclaiming the succession of Bakaffa.²⁷

Bakaffa's accession in 1721 ushered in five more decades of dynastic stability and political order. His reign reinvigorated the cultural revival of the 17th century with a renewed wave of construction, painting and writing. Urban life flourished in Gondar as nobels, merchants, scholars and priests were drawn from all over the empire to re-populate the cosmopolitan metropolis.²⁸

Dawit’s castle

Bakaffa’s palace, second image by Zamaniproject

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Gondar during the Mentewwab era (1730-1769)

Bakaffa was suceeded by his son Iyasu II (r. 1730-1755) and then by the latter's son Iyo'as (r. 1755-1769). However, political power during this period was largely controlled by Bakaffa's consort; Empress Mentewwab. The latter had risen to prominence during the last years of Bakaffa's reign. Two of her relatives; Niqolawos and Arkaledes were appointed into prominent positions at the behest of Mentewwab's grandmother Yolyana --who had introduced Bakaffa to the empress.²⁹

Upon Bakaffa's death in September 1730, Niqolawos called the council of nobles to announce that Iyasu had been designated sucessor. Iyasu was crowned immediately after, and his mother Mentewwab was also crowned in her own right on December 2nd. From the beginning of Iyasu's reign, power rested with Mentewwab and her relatives. Following the death of Yolyana and Niqolawos in 1732, disgruntled nobles rebelled against the co-regents Mentewwab and Iyasu by besieging the Gondar castle compound in December 1732. The rebellion was quickly suppressed and precipitated the rise of Walda Le'ul as the most important political figure of Mentewwab's reign.³⁰

Substantial construction work around Gondar was undertaken during the Mentewwab era with the most significant works undertaken in 1732 and 1740. These include the establishment of the dabra sahay Qwesqwam complex just outside Gondar, Mentewwab's castle in Gondar, and the Ras Ghimb castle that was occupied by Walda Le'ul.³¹ The growth of Gondar led to a substantial expansion of urban land ownership records of such transactions are found in the marginalia of many manuscripts of this period, including several looted by the British in 1868 and now housed in the British Library.³²

Mentewwab’s castle at Gondar

Banqueting Hall of the dabra sahay Qwesqwam complex, outside Gondar

Ras Gimb castle

The empress was a patron of the arts, and her era witnessed a resurgence of Ethiopian painting, in both manuscript illustration and church decoration. The art of Mentewwab’s era is termed the second gondarine style. This style was characterized by the appearance of more "naturalistic" compositions in which many local motifs and scenes were introduced into religious visual themes, as well as the heavy modeling of flesh, carefully rendered patterns of imported fabrics and brightly shaded backgrounds.³³

Royal and princely patronage of art at this time also found expression in the practice whereby a painter would place beneath his work, a representation of the ruler or other noble who had commissioned the work often shown lying prostrate below the figure of Mary. This custom, which became common during the first gondarine style flourished during the Mentewwab, and, added to the inclusion of paiters' signatures, resulted in the painting of numerous pictures of the redoubtable Empress Mentewwab and her son Iyasu II by named ethiopian artists such as Sirak, Asab Rufa'el Fanta, Wasan, and Hezekiel.³⁴

‘Wall painting c. 1747, Narga Sellase, lake Tana, Queen Mentewwab is depicted below the Virgin’

18th century manuscript, Acts of George, British library Or. 714, caption reads: "King of kings Iyasu and his mother Queen Walatta Giyorgis". Bottom figure is Mentewwab's mother Wayzaro Enkore, to the lower left is Blattengeta Arkaledes and Ras Walda Le'ul (her uncle and brother). To the left of Mentewwab is Mamher Aynte and below her is Blattengeta Asayo.³⁵

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Gondar during the ‘era of Princes’ (1769-1855)

After the death of Walda Le'ul in 1767, the political power of Mentewwab and her allies was significantly reduced within Gondar. She was forced to rely on several external allies, the most notable of whom was Mika'el Sehul. Mika'el was a nobleman from Adwa who had briefly rebelled against the Gondar rulers in 1746. The royal army sent to crush his rebellion at Amba Samayata in 1748 forced him to submit to Iyasu's authority and he was reinstated. He entered a matrimonial alliance with Mentewwab's court by arranging the marriage of his son Walda Hawaryat to Mentewwab's daughter Alt'ash in 1755. And by 1768, Mika'el arrived at Gondar after he had been appointed by Mentewwab as a Ras -an powerful royal title-.³⁶

After a series of internecine power struggles between the allies of Iyo'as led by his uncle Lubo against the forces of Ras Mika'el, which involved several battles in the vicinity of Gondar, Mika'el's forces prevailed. Mika'el then crowned Yohannes as king and executed Iyo'as on May 1769, effectively crushing Lubo's faction but inadvertently ending the authority of the Ethiopian emperors. After the execution of Iyo'as, the equilibrium between the capital and the regional lords, collapsed as rival political factions and powerful nobles reduced the emperor to a mere figured.³⁷

Its during this period that the explorer James Bruce arrived in Ethiopia and spent several months at Gondar between 1769 and 1771. Besides providing a rather brief account of the city's layout and monuments, he estimated that Gondar had a population of about 60,000. while this figure has since become a subject of considerable debate, it nevertheless accurately captures the significance of Gondaras the empire’s capital, especially considering the rather unflattering description of the ongoing civil war at the time.³⁸

During this period of regionalization (known as Zemene Mesafint: era of princes) several provincial lords became virtually independent, and established dynasties of their own. Among the provincial states of Shewa, Tigre, Gojjam and Bagemder, the most powerful of these provincial lords was the ruler of Bagemder. The significance of Bagemder lay in the fact that it surrounded the capital, Gondar, which thus depended on it for most of its provisions. The result was that the government of Bagemder was entrusted to "none but noblemen of rank, family, and character", who were "able to maintain a large number of troops."³⁹

The ruling dynasty of Bagemder were the Yajju, a northern Oromo group that had played a prominent role during the 17th-18th century Gondarine politics. They later established their capital at Dabra Tabor after the decline of Gondar as a political capital. However, Gondar remained an important cultural center especially for the Ethiopian church, as it was home to the residences of the Abun and the Ecage, which were considered places of asylum.⁴⁰

While the puppet emperors at Gondar had virtually no power, and were routinely deposed and installed several times, atleast one of them undertook some major restoration work in the old city. The emperor Egwale Seyon (r. 1801-1818) is credited with the reconstruction and decoration of Iyasu’s church of Dabra Berhān Sellāsē, covering it with several of his own portraits depicted in the second Gondarine style.⁴¹

Murals in the church of Dabra Berhān Sellāsē

Gondar was an important scholarly center. The Ethiopian education system in the 18th and 19th century was conducted through two types of church schools; the elementary-level rural schools led by an individual dabtara (lay clerics); and the advanced-level 'urban' schools led by several teachers, priests, and dabtaras who specialized in different subjects. Students wishing to attend the more important schools often had to travel to the larger centers like Gondar. In the late 1830s, towns such as Aksum, Adwa, and the Shewa capital of Ankobar were home to several schools, some with over 100 students; eg the church of Giyorgis at Ankobar was attended by 60 children who received instruction from 6 teachers. All students intended to go to Gondar to "take holy orders".⁴²

The city also retained some commercial importance. With the resident merchant population consisting nearly a third of its 10,000-18,000 urban residents. Its merchants organized caravans that linked various regional trade routes to long distance routes terminating in Sudan and on the red-sea port of Massawa. The merchants of the city were said by be the "most wealthy and influential body in the land." according to contemporary accounts which placed them "next to the clergy and aristocracy".⁴³

Gondar was also a major hub of crafts industries. According to contemporary accounts, the city was one of the places "where one finds the professions of the tailor, miller, baker and a mass of others unknown in Abyssinia." these "weavers, curriers, leatherworkers, harness-makers, blacksmiths, saddlemakers and sandal-makers, parchment-makers, book-binders, scribes and copyists, goldsmiths and copper-workers, embroiders and carpenters".⁴⁴ The highly skilled masons of Gondar were employed domestically as well as regionally by provincial lords such as king Sahla Sellase of Sawa, who commisioned them to construct the church of Madhane 'Alam at Ankobar. The city's craftworkers reflected its cosmopolitan character, most of the masons were Beta-Israel, many of the embroiders and tailors were Muslim, and its gunsmiths were Greeks.

Illustration of Gondar from 1885

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Gondar during the late 19th century

By the early 19th century, the powers of the emperor in Gondar had decreased further. Virtually none of the provincial lords brought any tribute to the capital and the small palace regiment had been extinguished. In 1830 and 1840, Gondar was looted by forces of the feuding lords who exhausted all its provisions. Bagemder was ruled by Ras Ali Alula, who was virtually the "master and king" of the empire according to contemporary accounts. While Ras Ali had several subordinate lords, his power was relatively limited compared to other provincial lords such as the dynasty of Sawa, although his taxing of Gondar’s trade made his court relatively wealthy.⁴⁵

The rise of Tewodros in the 1850s and his defeat of Ras Ali and other lords ended the regionalism of the previous era, but was devastating to the fortunes of Gondar. After a series of political miscalculations in the early 1860s Téwodros, began to lose any semblance of control over the nascent state. After disputes with the church, Tewodros imprisoned the Abun in 1864 at his capital in Magdala, and ordered his troops to sack the city⁴⁶. His forces would again sack Gondar in December 1866 under the pretext that its inhabitants refused to pay taxes. his troops sacked both the churches of Gondar and the (Muslim) merchant houses, carrying off loot (including some manuscripts that would later be seized by the British in 1868). Following this attack, many of the inhabitants of Gondar, Christians as well as Muslims, fled the town.⁴⁷

After the defeat of Tewodros by the British at Magdala in 1868, he was suceeded by Takla Giyorgis (r. 1868-1871). Takla attempted to shore up his imperial legitimacy by restoring Gondar's churches and castles, he also restored the church lands taken away by Tewodros, and arranged for a special burial for the Abun who had died at Magdala with Tewodros. A contemporary chronicler wrote that “after Fasil, there was no one who did for Gondar as Ase Takla Giyorgis did”.⁴⁸

Takla Giyorgis's reign was cut short by his defeat at the hands of Yohannes IV who suceeded him in 1871. Yohannes constructed a new church at Gondar and made minor repairs on a few of the old churches, but maintained Tewodros' less than cordial policy towards Gondar's merchants. The city's remaining merchants decided to flee to Sudan where a independence movement led by the Mahdi expelled the Ottoman-Egyptian government.⁴⁹

In 1888, the Mahdist armies from Sudan defeated the forces of the Gojjam province in retaliation for an earlier raid by its lord, and they sacked Gondar while advancing deep into the Ethiopian highlands⁵⁰. The most damaged among the city's buildings was the church of Takla Haymanot where most of the earlier Gondarine structure was destroyed save for its two square towers.⁵¹

Yohannes responded to the Mahdist invasion by charging into Sudan at the head of a large army in 1899. Despite crushing the Mahdist forces, he was killed in battle, and would shortly after be suceeded by Menelik. The latter entered into an alliance of convenience with his western neighbors, in the face of the advancing European threat represented by the Italians in the red sea, and the British in Sudan. This conciliatory approach was reflected domestically as merchants gradually repopulated Gondar and trade recovered in the last decade of the 19th century.⁵²

The gradual resurgence of Gondar was however overshadowed by the founding of Addis Ababa as Menelik’s capital in 1892. After nearly three centuries as the seat of power, the old town of Gondar no longer served as the commercial and cultural center of Ethiopia.

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The eastern Mediterranean was for centuries home to one of Africa’s most significant diasporas. African pilgrims, scholars and travelers from the regions of Nubia and Ethiopia settled in the Holy Lands where they maintained a permanent presence.

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1. Maps by Matteo Salvadore and Gian Paolo Chiari.

2. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 73)

3. Muslim Partners, Catholic Foes: The Selective Isolation of Gondärine Ethiopia by Matteo Salvadore, Armenian Involvement in Ethiopian-Asian Trade 16th to 18th Centuries by Richard Pankhurst.

4. The Indigenous and the Foreign in Christian Ethiopian Art by Isabel Boavida pg 3-4)

5. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 74)

6. Urbanization and the Urban Space in Africa by Solomon Addis Getahun pg 120

7. The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia by Víctor Manuel Fernández pg 34)

8. Urbanization and the Urban Space in Africa by Solomon Addis Getahun pg 199, 121)

9. The Indigenous and the Foreign in Christian Ethiopian Art by Isabel Boavida pg 13)

10. All images taken from Wikimedia commons, unless otherwise stated

11. The Indigenous and the Foreign in Christian Ethiopian Art by Isabel Boavida pg 13, 9, A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 105, The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia by Víctor Manuel Fernández 23-33)

12. The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia by Víctor Manuel Fernández 75-76, 135-137, 334-335)

13. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 93-94, Urbanization and the Urban Space in Africa by Solomon Addis Getahun pg 123)

14. History of Ethiopian Towns from the Middle Ages to the Early Nineteenth Century Volume 1 by Richard Pankhurst pg 126

15. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 81-82

16. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 106)

17. Gondär In the Early Twentieth Century by Bahru Zewde pg 59, Muslims of Gondar by Abdussamad Ahmad pg 162-166,

18. Urbanization and the Urban Space in Africa by Solomon Addis Getahun pg 122, A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 100-101)

19. Urbanization and the Urban Space in Africa by Solomon Addis Getahun pg 122-123)

20. History of Ethiopian Towns from the Middle Ages to the Early Nineteenth Century Volume 1 by Richard Pankhurst pg 126,

21. History of Ethiopian Towns from the Middle Ages to the Early Nineteenth Century, Volume 1 by Richard Pankhurst pg 132

22. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 104

23. The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia by Víctor Manuel Fernández pg 203)

24. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4 by J. D. Fage pg 564

25. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 92)

26. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 111-112, Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 91)

27. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4 by J. D. Fage pg 565, Planning for Cities in Crisis: Lessons from Gondar, Ethiopia By Mulatu Wubneh pg 167

28. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 94)

29. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 94-95)

30. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4 by J. D. Fage pg 566-567, Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 102,

31. History of Ethiopian Towns from the Middle Ages to the Early Nineteenth Century, Volume 1 by Richard Pankhurst pg 159, Ethiopia Observer, Volume 12 pg 173

32. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 114)

33. African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia by Marilyn Heldman pg 195-196

34. Major Themes in Ethiopian Painting by Stanislaw Chojnacki pg 246-247, A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 106)

35. The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4 by J. D. Fage pg 567-569

36. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 104-111)

37. Land and Society in the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 112)

38. Gondär In the Early Twentieth Century by Bahru Zewde pg 69)

39. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 86-87, 170-173)

40. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 172, 200)

41. African Zion: The Sacred Art of Ethiopia by Marilyn Heldman pg 196

42. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 128-9)

43. A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 212-213)

44. The Indigenous and the Foreign in Christian Ethiopian Art by Isabel Boavida pg 14, A social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 230-233)

45. social history of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 161, 172, 220)

46. Layers of Time by Paul B. Henze pg 137

47. Muslims of Gondar by Abdussamad Ahmad pg 167, The Other Abyssinians by Brian J. Yates pg 50)

48. Imperial Legitimacy and the Creation of Neo-Solomonic Ideology in 19th-Century Ethiopia by Donald Crummey pg 23

49. Muslims of Gondar by Abdussamad Ahmad pg 168)

50. Confronting a Christian Neighbor: Sudanese Representations of Ethiopia in the Early Mahdist Period by I Seri-Hersch pg 259

51. The Other Abyssinians by Brian J. Yates pg 78, The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia by Víctor Manuel Fernández pg 91)

52. Muslims of Gondar by Abdussamad Ahmad pg 168-170, In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa by Said S. Samatar pg 107