Demystifying the land of Punt and locating ancient Egypt's place in African History
On early state formation in the northern Horn of Africa (2700BC-800BC)
“Why have you come here in this land, which the people do not know? Did you come down on this way from the sky, or did you sail upon the waters, upon the sea of God’s Land?" (The ruler of Punt welcoming an Egyptian trade expedition into his country1)
Egyptologists have been enthralled with the land Punt since the 19th century, a fascination that was partly fueled by a theory made by Flinders Petrie —the father of modern Egyptology— that Punt was the origin of the founding kings of ancient Egypt. Many scholars have proposed dozens of places as Punt’s probable location, with most arguing for its placement in areas as close to Egypt as Sudan and the Red sea region2, and a few exotic theories placing it as far as Indonesia3 and Uganda.4 A lot of the confusion comes down to the way in which ancient Egyptian descriptions and depictions of foreign lands are uncritically interpreted in modern scholarship, especially with regards to Egypt’s southern neighbors.5
Recent archeological discoveries on the Egyptian red-sea coast and its relationship to the Neolithic cultures of the northern Horn of Africa, as well as a re-examination of descriptions of Punt in ancient Egyptian records, strongly suggests that the semi-legendary land of Punt constituted most —if not all— of the early states that emerged between the Eastern Sudan and northern Eritrea during the early 3rd millennium BC.
This article demystifies the “land of Punt by exploring its history within the context of North-East Africa’s political history during the 2nd millennium BC.
North-East africa during the 2nd millennium BC showing; Middle Kingdom Egypt, the Kerma kingdom, and the location of the early states that constituted the land of Punt
Support AfricanHistoryExtra by becoming a member of our Patreon community, subscribe here to read more about African history, download free books, and keep this newsletter free for all:
Travelling to the land Punt: contested trade routes between Egypt and the kingdom of Kerma
During the mid-2nd millennium BC, changes in the geo-political landscape of north-east Africa altered the dynamic nature of over-land and maritime exchange between Middle Kingdom Egypt (c. 2055–1650BC) and its southern neighbors. The emergence of the Kingdom of Kerma (ie ancient Kush) in the region of upper Nubia (northern Sudan) as a formidable competitor, altered the organization of overland trading routes which funneled valued commodities into the Nile valley civilizations from central Sudan and the Sudan-Eritea lowlands. This change prompted the Middle kingdom kings to expand their maritime trade in the red-sea in order to bypass Kerma. 6
The land of Punt first appears in ancient Egyptian texts during the reign of King Sahura (r 2487–2475BC, 5th dynasty, Old kingdom era), on a document called "The Palermo Stone" which records the king receiving goods from Punt that included myrrh and electrum.7 Records about the expeditions of the Old kingdom kings; Djedkara (r. 2414–2375BC) and Pepy II (r. 2278– 2247BC) into Upper Nubia (around the time of Kerma's emergence), also mention them receiving a "pygmy" among other “ gifts of the mining-region of Punt”. From the 25th century BC to the 11th century BC, ancient Egyptian trading expeditions acquired goods from Punt indirectly and later directly, that included; electrum, gold, panther skins, ebony, throw-sticks, ivory, myrrh, eye paint, apes and baboons. The importance of Punt’s luxuries in ancient Egyptian royal iconography and religion was such that it was also considered part of “god’s land”; a generalized location south and east of Egypt that also contained the lands of Irem and Amau 8
According to descriptions of Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom trading expeditions to its southern neighbors, the land of Punt could be reached via an inland route via Upper Nubia as well as by a sea route, but by the time of Mentuhotep III around 1996BC, trading expeditions were no longer sent through Upper Nubia despite Egypt's expansion into lower Nubia. Possibly reflecting the formidable power of imperial Kerma, which at its height in the mid-2nd millennium Bc, would lead a major invasion deep into Egypt with a coalition of forces that included soldiers from Punt and many of Egypt's southern neighbors.9
Stela of King Amenemhat III found at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis that include description of two expeditions to Punt and Bia-Punt under the brothers; Nebsu and Amenhotep.10
Men from Punt Carrying Gifts, Tomb of Rekhmire, ca. 1479–1420 B.C, met museum.
Probable locations of Punt (and Irem) based on their proximity to Kerma, and their direction from Middle kingdom Egypt's red-sea port of Saww11
Maritime trade to Punt: the Egyptian red sea port of Saww (Mersa Gawasis)
The ancient red-sea port of Saww was established around the late 3rd millennium BC, and by the reign of Senusret i (ca. 1956–1911 BC), and Amenemhat ii (ca. 1911–1877 BC) had become the main port from which expeditions to punt were sent. The discovery of 28 inscribed stelae at the site of Mersa/Wadi Gawasis on the Red Sea coast in Egypt, that contained records of these expeditions to Punt, as well as; several man-made caves containing cargo boxes inscribed with the labels “wonderful things of Punt”; and well-preserved ship timbers and sailing equipment --all of which were securely dated to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC-- left no doubt that Mersa was the ancient port of Saww. The enormous outlay of effort and manpower needed to build ships on the Nile, dismantle them, and rebuild them on the red sea just to obtain Punt's goods attests to their high value, and the formidable threat that Kerma's control of the southern trade routes presented to Egypt.12
Most of the inscribed stela record the organization of the expeditions but include little information about the land of Punt, save for mentioning items Egypt exported to Punt including perfumed oils, cosmetics, personal ornaments and weapons.13 We therefore turn to the archeological evidence recovered from Mersa to determine the origin of the items from Punt. Besides the Egyptian ceramics, the assemblage at Mersa includes some ceramic fragments from various Neolithic cultures of the Eastern Sudan-Eritrea region including the Pan-grave culture (c.2000–1500 bc) from the Eastern Desert in Sudan, as well as the Gash group (c.2700–1800 bc) and the Jebel Mokram Group (c.1800–800 bc) cultures straddling the Sudan-Eritrea lowlands. The majority of non-Egyptian ceramics at Mersa however, were from classic Kerma and C-group in upper and lower Nubia, reflecting the political dominance of Kerma during the early 2nd millennium BC.14
Middle kingdom materials from Mersa. On the left half; Cargo boxes in situ, coiled ropes for ship riggings15, on the right half; Inscription on cargo box 21; “…of wonderful things of Punt, the royal scribe Djedy” with a cartouche of king Amenemhat IV.16
Finding Egyptian materials in Punt: The Neolithic cultures of Eastern Sudan/Northern Eritrea.
According to Egyptian textual and iconographic sources, Punt was the southernmost region included in the commercial network of the Pharaonic state, and was regarded as a distinct country from the other southern regions within the Egyptian sphere of political and economic influence. In the New Kingdom era, Punt encompassed several districts, suggesting that its land included different regions broadly stretching along the Red Sea coast and the African hinterland.17
Using the textural references about the land of Punt given in Middle kingdom texts provides its approximate geographic location within the northern Horn of Africa region and possibly south-western Arabia. This region is where all the products that the Egyptians considered typical of Punt, such as aromatic resins (myrrh and frankincense), ebony, ivory, baboons and gold, could be actually obtained.18 Although the variety of these goods need not be limited to those available only from the country itself if the Puntites also acted as middlemen for goods from elsewhere.19 Isotopic analysis of Baboon mummies from Punt that were preserved in ancient Egyptian tombs conclusively placed the location of Punt in the northern horn of Africa20.
Beginning in the mid-3rd millennium BC, the lowlands of eastern Sudan and northern Eritrea were occupied by semi-sedentary pastoral groups that are identified in the archaeological record with the Gash Group (ca. 2700–1800 BC) and Jebel Mokram Group (ca. 1800 – 800 BC).21 The Gash group shows all indicators of an emerging centralized state, with nucleated settlements such as its capital at Mahal Teglinos; elaborate elite burials surmounted by tall funerary steale; administrative devices including clay-seals ; monumental architecture including large mudbrick structures, and long distance trade with the red-sea coast and Nile valley.22 Jebel Mokram also appears to have been an incipient state with a large nucleated settlement at Jebel Abu Gamal, and possessed similar but less elaborated features as the Gash group, as well as ceramics produced in the nile valley.23
Several ancient Egyptian ceramics from the 11th-12th dynasty (early Middle Kingdom)24 and a stela from the Middle Kingdom have been recovered from the assemblages of the Gash group capital of Mahal teglinos in all sequences from (c.2300-1800 bc). The presence of cowrie shells (Cyprea moneta) from the Red Sea, and two armlets made of Lambis shells, that were made in the Sinai region suggests that herders from the Gash delta frequented the Red sea coast, possibly the bay of Aqiq.25 After the collapse of the Gash group culture and the emergence of the Jebel Mokram group, Egyptian ceramics, faience objects and kohl sticks appear in the assemblage from many of its sites in the 2nd millennium BC, particularly important is the Egyptian pottery at the sites, that was made during the 18th dynasty (ie; New kingdom Egypt), reflecting the political changes in the Nile valley during this time.26
Stele field of Mahal Teglinos, Gash Group, Kassala, Eastern Sudan.
(a)Faience bead necklace from a Gash Group tomb, (b) Egyptian wheel-thrown pottery from Mahal Teglinos (d) Bronze kohl stick, (e) bangles from Mahal Teglinos obtained from shells of Lambis truncata27
Map showing the location of the various Neolithic cultures in Eastern sudan-Northern eritrea including; Butana Group (c. 3800–3000 BC), Gash Group (c. 2700–1500 BC) and Jebel Mokram Group (c. 1500–800 BC), and Hagiz group (1st millennium BC)28
Houses or Stores in Punt, Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari
New Kingdom Egypt ‘s expeditions to “God’s Land”
Following a long series of wars with Kerma, the restored kingdom of Egypt (called the New kingdom) managed to subdue its southern foe; the kingdom of Kerma, and re-establish trade with Punt, beginning in the reign of 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC.). The political impact of the re-establishment of trade with Punt after a long hiatus was closely tied to the unusual circumstance of her ascent and became an important legitimating device, leading the queen to “monumentalize” this event, as one of the political milestones of her reign through a decorative programmed at her funerary temple of Deir el-Bahri in Thebes, initiating a tradition that would continue until the 20th dynasty.29 For much of the New kingdom era, Egyptian expeditions to Punt were depicted in various Pharaonic temples and tombs, showing the people, dwellings, fauna and flora of Punt's countryside. The importance of Punt's aromatic products in Egyptian cosmology; in which they were considered as signs of favour of the gods towards the Pharaoh30, also explains Punt's elevated position in New kingdom Egyptian iconography31 and how it acquired a specific divine character as bi3w Pwnt, translating to “marvelous”/”wonderous” Punt.32
King and Queen of Punt leading a procession of men bearing gifs,
Procession of Puntities led by their King and Queen, shown meeting an Egyptian trading party (on the right), Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari.
Men from Punt Transporting incense trees, Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari
Relief scene from Tomb-143 in Thebes, Depicting a trading encounter between a New Kingdom Egyptian trading expedition led by Thutmose II’s chief treasurer named Min (on the left) with traders from Punt (on the right) who arrived on rafts. This exchange most likely at a river-port rather than at a sea-port.33
In contrast to the Middle Kingdom dependency on maritime trade routes, the New kingdom's control of trade routes in Upper Nubia enabled it to conduct over-land trade as well, which possibly terminated on the banks of the Nile at a riverport near Kurgus on the 4th cataract, where traders from Punt met those from Egypt. (although the latter occasionally travelled directly to Punt)34 This switch from maritime to overland routes is reflected in the archeological record of the Gash group and Jebel Mokram sites, whereby the former often contained Egyptian objects that weren't common in upper Nubia, but the Jebel Mokram Group assemblages included not just Egyptian objects common in Upper Nubia, but also objects made in Nubia itself.35 Additionally, the contrast between the titles used to describe the ruler of Punt in the Middle kingdom texts, where they were called hekaw (ruler), versus in the New kingdom texts, where they are called werew (chieftain), may be also be inferred archeologically when comparing the more hierarchical/centralized nature of the Gash group compared to the Jebel Mokram group.36
The last expedition to Punt was sent by king Ramses III 1198-1167BC, one of the last strong rulers before the collapse of New kingdom Egypt, An inscription tells of galleys and barges returning from Punt, "laden with the products of God's land"37. The Neolithic culture of Jebel Mokram outlasted New kingdom Egypt's decline, continuing to flourish in the early-mid 1st millennium BC around the time when the centralized state of D'Mt emerged to its south, becoming the new regional power and anteceding the rise of Aksum.38
Conclusion: What Punt says about Ancient Egypt’s place in african History
The growing evidence for the emergence of social complexity in the northern horn of Africa in the 3rd millennium BC, reveals a much deeper connection of the region in the broad network of commercial and political relationships of North East Africa; supporting the longstanding hypothesis that the region of Eastern Sudan and northern Eritrea is identified with the Land of Punt or at least —a part of it.
The essentialist nature in which ancient Egyptian descriptions and depictions of Punt are commonly interpreted reflects a general trend in Egyptology which often shows a blind spot in understanding Egypt's relationship with its neighbors. In particular, the continued reliance of 19th century racial theories in interpreting 4,000 year old artwork of foreign groups in ancient Egypt (such as the now-discredited "Dynastic race theory" in which Punt was supposedly the origin of Egypt's dynasties39) obscures a more critical interpretation of ancient Egyptians' own complex forms of self-depiction (eg the depiction of New kingdom Queen Ahmose Nefertari as "black"40)
The people of Punt were depicted in the same reddish brown color the ancient Egyptians' used to depict themselves, not because Egyptian artists wanted to show that the Puntites shared the same "race" (a clearly anachronistic concept), nor was it even a realistic portrait of the country and its people,41Instead, just like the depictions of reddish-brown foreigners Aegeans from Greece, the Puntite foreigners' proximity to the Egyptian self-depiction was determined by Punt's role in legitimation of Pharaonic power and the importance of Punt's products in ancient Egyptian cosmology.42
Looking beyond the aura of mystery surrounding the "God's land" of ancient Egyptian lore, enables us to demystify the history Punt, and opens a new window into our understanding of early state development in the northern Horn of africa, and locating Egypt's place in African History.
Sailing to punt
The “Ancient Egyptian Race controversy” is most divisive topic in modern Egyptology, in this article, i explore ancient Egypt’s definition of “ethnicity” and their relationship with the kingdoms and people of Nubia;
Read about the Kingdom of Kerma, the powerful southern neighbour of Egypt
Urkunden der 18. Dynastie by Kurt Sethe pg 323
see overview of 54 different locations of Punt in; Punt: die Suche nach dem 'Gottesland' by Francis Breyer
Land of Punt by Dhani Irwanto)
The Road to Punt by F.D.P. Wicker
for an overview of Egypt’s relationship with Nubia, see Wretched Kush by Stuart Tyson Smith, and Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs Uroš Matić
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich Pg 1-6)
Hatshepsut and the Politics of Punt by Pearce Paul Creasman pg 3)
Punt and Aksum: Egypt and the Horn of Africa by Jacke Phillips pg 430, Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 6
Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt by László Török pg 56, 84, 109)
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 64-65
Punt and Aksum: Egypt and the Horn of Africa by Jacke Phillips pg 424
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 21, 25-27, 31-32)
Back to Mahal Teglinos: New Pharaonic Evidence from Eastern Sudan Andrea Manzo pg 15
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 105-6, 169-171, 176-177)
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 97, 49
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 75-76
Seafaring Expeditions to Punt in the Middle Kingdom by Kathryn A. Bard and Rodolfo Fattovich pg 157)
The So-Called "Mine of Punt" and Its Location by Stanley Balanda pg 36-38
Punt and Aksum: Egypt and the Horn of Africa by Jacke Phillips pg 438, Bi3w Pwnt in the archaeological record by A. Manzo pg 91
Mummified baboons reveal the far reach of early Egyptian mariners by Nathaniel J Dominy
The Development of Ancient States in the Northern Horn of Africa by Rodolfo Fattovich pg 154-156
Tokens, Pottery Discs, and Other Administrative Devices: Studies between Nubia and Ethiopia by Andrea Manzo pg 55-54
The Archaeomalacological Remains by Alfredo Carannante pg 56-65, Italian Archaeological Expedition to the Eastern Sudan Report of the 2011 Field Season
Egyptian ceramics from Eastern Sudan by A. Manzo pg 183-186
The Archaeomalacological Remains by Alfredo Carannante pg 96-97, The Archaeology of Punt by Rodolfo Fattovich pg 207-208)
Back to Mahal Teglinos: New Pharaonic Evidence from Eastern Sudan Andrea Manzo pg 6-8
images from; Back to Mahal Teglinos by Andrea Manzo and The Archaeomalacological Remains by Alfredo Carannante
maps from; The Archaeomalacological Remains by Alfredo Carannante pg 43-46
Hatshepsut and the Politics of Punt by Pearce Paul Creasman pg 4-5, From Tenochtitlán to Punt by Gianluca Miniaci pg 179-180
Punt in Egyptian myth and trade by Rosanna Pirelli 385-387
Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs by Uroš Matić pg 13-14)
Bi3w Pwnt in the archaeological record by A. Manzo pg 88-89
Kpn-boats, Punt Trade, and a Lost Emporium by Louise Bradbury pg 40
Kpn-boats, Punt Trade, and a Lost Emporium by Louise Bradbury pg 55-58, Punt and Aksum: Egypt and the Horn of Africa by Jacke Phillips pg 433)
Back to Mahal Teglinos: New Pharaonic Evidence from Eastern Sudan Andrea Manzo pg 12
Harbor of the Pharaohs to the Land of Punt by Kathryn A. Bard, Rodolfo Fattovich pg 18
The Ethiopian borderlands by Richard Pankhurst pg 13-15)
The Italian Archaeological Expedition 2010 - 2011 by A. Manzo pg 319
The making of Egypt by Flinders Petrie pg 77
Ahmose Nefertari, the Woman in Black by Graciela Gestoso Singer
Punt in Egyptian myth and trade by Rosanna Pirelli pg 386)
Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs by Uroš Matić pg 13-14
Punt is definitely one of more mysterious or obscure civilizations and histories thanks for the info you always have a good unbiased viewpoint and come with facts.
Thank you for the great summary of Punt's historiography!