The radical philosophy of the Hatata: a 17th century treatise by the Ethiopian thinker Zara Yacob

the historical context of the Hatata in African philosophy.

The 'Hatata' treatise of the 17th-century Ethiopian scholar Zärä Yaqob and his student Wäldä Heywät is one of the best-known and most celebrated works of African philosophy.

The radical ideas espoused by its authors have been especially useful in the study of pre-colonial African philosophy, and are often favorably compared to contemporary Enlightenment thinkers in the Western world like René Descartes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

However, the lively debate sparked by such comparisons has inadvertently obscured the historical context in which the Hatata was written, and the significance of its contribution to Africa's epistemic traditions.

This article explores the Hatata in its historic context as a product of its authors' intellectual background and the competitive cultural landscape of Ethiopia during the 'Gondarine period', and its similarities with other works of African philosophy.

Map of Ethiopia a century before the time of Zara Yacob¹

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The Historical Context of the Hatata.

Zara Yacob was an Ethiopian scribe born in August 1600 near the ancient city of Aksum² where he lived and studied for most of his early life and where he taught for at least four years. He fled from Aksum when Emperor Susenyos (r. 1607-1632) made Catholicism the state religion in 1626 and persecuted those still loyal to the Ethiopian church, before returning later to live in the town of Enfranz when the emperor abdicated in 1632. In the same year, he gained a patron named Lord Habtu who was the father to Walda Gabryel and Walda Heywat, the latter of whom became his student.³

In 1668, Zara Yacob completed his Hatata ('inquiry'), at the request of his student Walda Heywat. Sometime after 1693, Walda Heywat wrote his own Hatata, exploring the same themes as his teacher but in greater detail. He later wrote an epilogue to Zara Yacob's Hatata during the early 1700s, and copies of both manuscripts were obtained in 1854 by an Italian visitor to Ethiopia and sent to his patron, who then passed them on to the ‘Bibliothèque Nationale de France’ where they’d be later translated.⁴

The Hatata explores multiple interwoven themes using a method of philosophical inquiry that were deeply rooted in the Ethiopian cultural context of their authors.

Zara Yacob and Walda Heywat lived during the 'Gondarine period,' of Ethiopia a dynamic era in Ethiopian history marked by; the restoration of the state and church after its near annihilation; the ideological conflicts between the Ethiopian clergy and the Susenyos’ Portuguese (Jesuit) allies; and the civil war between Susenyos' supporters and those loyal to the Ethiopian church, which ended when his son Fasilidas become emperor in 1632 and expelled the Jesuits. Many of these events are mentioned in Zara Yacob’s biography.

the 17th century castle of Guzara, built by Emperor Fasilidas overlooking the town of Enfranz where Zara Yacob and Walda Heywat completed the Hatata. These monuments were characteristic of the Gondarine period (see my article on Gondar’s architecture), and are briefly mentioned in the Hatata.

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Like all Ethiopian scribes, Zara Yacob received his education from the traditional schools of Ethiopia, with all its major stages of study, as well as the more advanced levels like the Nebab Bet, (house of reading), the Zema Bet (house of music), the Qeddase Bet, (house of liturgy), the Qene Bet (house of poetry). The various subjects taught in these stages, which include theology, law, poetry, grammar, history, and philosophy, and the extensive works memorized by the students; which include ‘the gospels’, commentaries, psalters, law, history, and other subjects, are all reflected in the Hatata which explicitly references some of them.⁵

Influences from the broader corpus of Ethiopian literature are reflected in the Hatata, not just the more familiar works listed above on which students are trained in school, but also works circulating among the different monasteries. These include the Mäşhafä fälasfa (The Book of the Wise Philosophers) a collection of classical philosophical texts translated into Ge’ez in the 16th century, the Fisalgos, which is a much older work of classical philosophy translated into Ge’ez in the 6th-7th century, and the ‘Life and Maxims of Skəndəs’, a lesser known work translated to Ge’ez around the 15th century.⁶

Zara Yacob and Walda Heywat also comment on the ideological conflicts of the era between the different political and religious factions, including the Ethiopian-Christians, the Catholics (Portuguese), the Muslims (both Ethiopian and non-Ethiopian), the Betä Ǝsraʾel (Ethiopian Jews), and even the Indians (craftsmen and artisans who accompanied the Portuguese⁷) and the ancient religion of the ‘Sabaeans and Homerites’ (an anachronistic reference to the Aksumite vassals in Arabia). They also comment on the pre-existing social hierarchy and tensions between this diverse and cosmopolitan society of 17th-century Ethiopia.⁸

So while Zara Yacob and Walda Heywat were radicals and free-thinkers whose writings were skeptical of established theology and philosophy in Ethiopia and beyond, they drew from a conceptual vocabulary and critical approach steeped in Ethiopian tradition.⁹

The philosophy of Zara Yacob has been described by many scholars as ‘rational,’ ‘humanist,’ and ‘liberal,’ inviting comparisons (and contrasts) with Descartes and Rousseu,¹⁰ as well as arguments that Zara Yacob in some ways pre-empted Enlightenment thought on the existence of God, rationalism, and natural rights.¹¹ While there are certainly many passages in the Hatata that warrant such comparisons, attempts to fit the treatise into Western philosophical categories risk obscuring the cultural and historical context in which its authors were writing, and may invite (uninformed) criticism from detractors, all of which ultimately overlook the remarkably radical contribution of Zara Yacob to Ethiopian and African thought.¹²

Zara Yaqob's Hatata argues for putting one’s own rational thoughts and investigations at the center of one’s life and actions rather than uncritically following established wisdom, while the Hatata of Walda Heywat is a more didactic text on how we should live. For the sake of brevity, I will quote two chapters from the Hatata of Zara Yacob and the Hatata of Walda Heywat which I think stand out the most:

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Zara Yacob's Hatata; Chapter 7: "My Inquiry Regarding the Truth of Different Religions"

And later, I thought, ‘Is all that is written in the sacred books true?’ I thought a lot, but [in spite of this thinking,] I didn’t understand anything.

So, I said [to myself], ‘I will go, and I will ask learned people and those who question deeply, and they will tell me the truth’.

And after this, I thought, ‘What answer will people give me except that which is already present in their hearts?’

In fact, everyone says, ‘My religion is correct, and those who believe in another religion believe in something false, and they are enemies of God’.

Now, the färänǧ [ European Catholics ] say to us, ‘Our creed is good, and your creed is evil’. But we [Ethiopians] answer them, ‘It is not evil; rather your creed is evil and our creed is good’.

Now, suppose we asked Muslims and Jews [about their belief]? They would say the same thing to us.

Also, if they argued the case in this debate, who would be the judge? No human being [could judge] because all human beings have become judgemental, and they condemn each other.

First, I asked a färänǧ scholar about many things concerning our [Ethiopian] creed and he decided everything [was right or wrong] according to his own creed.

Afterwards, I asked a great Ethiopian teacher, and he [likewise] decided everything according to his creed.

If we asked Muslims and Jews about the same things, they would also decide according to their own religion.

Where will I find someone who will decide [on the religions and creeds] truthfully? Because [just as] my religion seems true to me, so does another’s religion seem true to them. But, there is only one truth.

As I turned these things over in my mind, I thought, ‘O wisest and most righteous Creator, who created me with the faculty of reason, give me understanding’.

For wisdom and truth are not found among human beings, but as David said [in Psalms], ‘‘indeed, everyone is a liar’

I thought and said [to myself], ‘Why do human beings lie about these vital matters [of religion], such that they destroy themselves?’

It seemed to me that they lie because they know nothing at all, although they think they are knowledgeable. Therefore, because they think they are knowledgeable, they don’t search to find out the truth”...¹³

Walda Heywat's Hatata, Chapter 5: "My Inquiry regarding Religious Faith"

Concerning what remains—human teachings and books—we should not believe them hastily, without inquiry. Rather we should [only] accept these teachings intentionally, after extensive investigation, as long as we see them as being in harmony with our intelligence. That is to say, our intelligence will be the measure of whether we should believe in them, and what our intelligence affirms as untrue we should not believe. Neither should we hastily say, ‘It’s a lie!’—for we don’t know whether it’s true or false. Instead, because of this [ignorance] let’s say, ‘We won’t believe it because we don’t understand it’.

If people say to me, ‘Why don’t you believe everything that is written in books, as those before us did?’

I would reply to them, ‘Because books are written by human beings who are capable of writing lies’.

If people further say to me, ‘Why don’t you believe?’ I would reply to them, ‘Tell me why you believe? After all, no reason is needed for not believing, but it is needed for believing. What reason do you have to believe in everything that is written? You have no reason except this alone: that you have heard from human mouths that what’s written is true. But don’t you understand? [Just] because they tell you, “What’s written is true”, doesn’t mean they [actually] know whether it’s true or false. Rather, just as you heard this from them, they too heard it from those before them. In the same way, all those ancestors believed in human words, even though they might have been lies, and not in God’s words. [And regarding that speech,] God does not speak to you except through the voice of your intelligence’.

If people say to me, ‘It’s not like that! Rather, God has spoken to human beings and revealed his truth to them!’

I would reply to them, ‘How do you know that God has spoken with human beings and revealed his truth to them? Isn’t it rather that you heard it from human mouths, who testified that they heard it from [other] human mouths? Must you always believe human words, even though they could be lies? Whether it’s true or false, you believe [it] unthinkingly’.

So, inquire! Don’t say in your hearts, ‘We are steadfast in our religion, which cannot be false!’ Pay attention! For human beings lie about religious matters, because religions are utterly inconsistent. Human beings don’t give reasonable explanations about what’s right for us to believe. So, they put an inquiring heart into a total quandary.

Look, one tells us, ‘Believe in the religion of Alexandria!’

Another tells us, ‘Believe in the religion of Rome!’

And a third tells us, ‘Believe in the religion of Moses!’

And a fourth tells us, ‘Believe in Mohammed’s religion, Islam!’

Further, Indians have a different religion!

So do Himyarites and Sabeans, and [many] other peoples.

They all say, ‘Our religion is from God!’

But how can God, who is righteous in all his actions, reveal one religion to one group, and another to another group? And how can all these different religions be from God? Which of them is true, requiring us to believe in it?

Tell me, if you know, because I don’t know! I will only believe what God has revealed to me [if it comes] through the light of my intelligence. That way I won’t be misled in my religious faith.

If someone should say to me, ‘Unless you believe, God’s judgement will fall on you!’

I will say to them, ‘God can’t order me to believe in lies. And he can’t judge me for a religious faith that I have rejected because it doesn’t seem true to me. For he gave me the light of my intelligence to distinguish good from evil, and truth from lies. This intelligent light reveals absolutely nothing as to whether all human religions are true, but it does clarify for me that all religions arise from human error and not from God. Thus, for this reason I have rejected them [all]!¹⁴’

Copy of the Hatata at the Bibliothèque nationale de France

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The philosophy of the Hatata

Zara Yacob's chapter (and most of his Hatata) is presented in an autobiographical style of a writer recording the meaningful events of his life and the result of his meditations. Zara Yacob’s method can be called a discursive subjugation of faith to intelligence or natural reason¹⁵. The Hatata was a product of Zara Yacob's personal reflection upon events that affected his life, with each introspective moment being a ‘penetrating intuition into the sense of history as it conditions his life’.¹⁶

On the other hand, Walda Heywat's chapter (and his Hatata) follows a dialectical 'box' pattern in which he develops a thesis; on how we ought to follow only what agrees with our reason, which he then follows up with a question-and-answer pattern; arguing that all faiths proceed from man's error, and he thus concludes by affirming his original thesis that he only believes what God demonstrated to him by the light of reason.¹⁷

While there are parallels between the writing of Walda Heywat and his tutor, the former was more influenced by the pedagogical method of traditional Ethiopian teaching, as well as wisdom literature such as the Mashafa falsafa, from which he borrowed at least five short stories that are included in other chapters of his treatise. He reproduces the traditional oral style of a sage instructing his pupils, or a parent with their child, addressing his readers like they were his disciples without assuming a superior attitude.¹⁸

I believe that these two chapters, out of a combined fifty-seven chapters of both Hatatas, provide the best summary of the philosophical arguments presented in the treatise, and inform us about the authors' perspectives on the themes they explore.

For example; Zara Yacob describes his personal interpretation of religion as such: "As for me, I lived with human beings, seeming like a Christian to them. But, in my heart, I did not believe—except in God the creator of everything and the protector of everything, as he had given me to know", adding that "I lived with people as if I was like them, and I dwelled with God in the way that he had given me to know”.¹⁹

He later argues that although religious laws contain "lies mingled together with truth" and "detestable wisdoms", the basic commandments (nine in the Old Testament and six in the New Testament²⁰) agree with the intelligence/reasoning of every human being. He therefore argues that religion "is desirable because it gets good things done, for it terrifies the wicked into not doing evil things and it consoles the good for their patient endurance"²¹.

According to Zara Yacob, religion is a bilateral rapport between the individual and God, without any ecclesiastical restrictions in between²² or, in his words, without the “pointless” commandments that man has added.²³ It’s in this context that Zara Yacob constructs his critique of all forms of religious laws by differentiating between what he considers 'God's law' and 'Man's law', with the latter being of limited use, while the former is ‘original’ and ‘illuminated by a total intelligence’.²⁴

He criticizes ascetic Christian monks who shun marriage, writing that "the Christians’ law says, ‘the ascetic monastic life is better than marriage’, it’s telling a lie and it’s not from God. For, how can the Christian law that violates the Creator’s law be better than his wisdom?". He then turns to criticize Islamic law on polygamy, arguing that since there are equal numbers of men and women, marrying many women violates God's law²⁵.

He also criticizes the law of Moses on menstruation being impure, arguing that "This ‘law of Moses’ makes marriage and a woman’s entire life difficult because it annuls [the principle of] mutual help, impedes child rearing, and destroys love. Therefore, this ‘law of Moses’ cannot be from the Creator of women." He then turns to criticize Islamic law on the slave trade, arguing that this law "cannot come from the Creator of human beings, the one who created us equal."²⁶

Zara Yacob's pattern of inquiry and criticism of established wisdom is followed in most chapters of his Hatata. It is also reflected in his personal philosophy regarding; the equality of men and women in marriage²⁷; the internecine and retributive violence between rival factions during Fasilidas' reign²⁸; and his role as the tutor of Walda Heywat for whom he wrote the Hatata²⁹.

In his Hatata, Walda Heywat faithfully follows Zara Yacob's teachings: "I don’t write what I have heard others say. Indeed, I have never accepted others’ teaching without inquiring into it and understanding whether it is good. I only write what appears true to me after inquiring into it and understanding it … never believe what is written in books except that content which you have scrutinized and found to be truthful.³⁰"

This is similar to Zara Yacob's criticism of those who follow established wisdom and religious law, to whom he addresses that: "They don’t believe in all these because they investigated them and found them to be true, rather they believe in them because they heard about them from their ancestors³¹"

The two philosophical works presuppose the power of comprehending and inferring, which is necessary for the reader to differentiate between the lies perpetuated by those who uncritically accept received wisdom and the truths acquired from independent thinking.³²

Walda Heywat continues Zara Yacob’s method of philosophical inquiry across the rest of the chapters of his book, covering a broad range of topics including; Human nature, religion, marriage, work, education, justice, equality of all people, acceptance of other cultures, and advice for leaders.

For example, he writes; “Don’t be impressed with the teaching of those inferior in wisdom, who say [things like], ‘I don’t know who to call “neighbour”, except our relatives, our neighbours, our friends, and our fellow believers’. Don’t say what they say, since all human beings are our ‘neighbours’, whether they are good or evil; whether Christians, Muslims, Jews, or pagans. All of them are our equals and all of them are our siblings because we are all children of one Father, and we are all one creator’s creatures.³³”

This was a very radical view for an Ethiopian scribe living in the 17th century when the tensions between the Ethiopian-Christians, Catholics, Muslims, Jews, and pagans were such that some settlements had begun to be segregated by faith, with official edicts enforcing these restrictions that would only be loosened at the end of the Gondarine period.³⁴

On tolerance of other cultures; “if you ‘desire to see good days’, be in harmony with everyone, in love and peace. To achieve this goal, the wisdom of the ancients is beneficial: ‘When you live among your own [people], live according to the customs of your homeland, but should you go to a foreign land, be like them’… Don’t do anything which is not good according to that [country’s] custom. Don’t say, ‘this action [of mine] is not offensive’! Rather, on the contrary, praise the customs of the country that you are living in. Be united with the people of that country, and pray that God will be gracious to everyone according to their character, customs, and actions”.

And in his advice to rulers; “If you are put in charge of others, don’t treat them with a heavy hand, or mistreat them with your power. Instead, be fair to everyone, high or low, rich, or poor, and without being timid in others’ presence, but administering justice with righteousness and impartiality. Don’t subjugate others with bitter servitude or enslavement. Instead, protect them as if they were your own children.³⁵”

In response to his critics who rejected his questioning of established wisdom, Walda Heywat writes; "I won’t write anything which is inconsistent with our intelligence, but only what is present in the heart of all human beings. I write to turn the wise and intelligent toward inquiry, through which they may ‘seek and find’ truth. For inquiring into everything is beautiful wisdom.³⁶"

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Conclusion: the ‘Hatata’ in African philosophy.

Zara Yacob and Walda Heywat occupy an important place in the development of African philosophy. According to both philosophers, Hatata (Inquiry) is the supreme criterion of philosophy, the only way to differentiate between the lies of established dogma and the self-evident truths revealed through the exercise of reason and independent thought.

I find in Walda Heywat’s Hatata some parallels with the work of the 19th-century West-African philosopher Dan Tafa, who argued for the use of rational proofs in determining the existence of God and religious laws. Dan Tafa was also criticized by his peers for his radical ideas and was compelled to write an ‘apologia’ in which he defended his study of philosophy, but retracted some of his radical arguments and promised not to teach philosophy to his students anymore.

The fact that both African philosophers included a defense of their ideas against criticism underscores the competitive intellectual environment in which such ideas emerged, which allowed room for some scholars to challenge established wisdom, and in other cases even to challenge established authority.

However, it also points to resistance by established elites against such radical thinking, which was a common experience of many philosophers around the world before their ideas were gradually adopted. Criticism of Walda Heywat and Dan Tafa can be contrasted with the relatively “conformist” philosophical treatise of the 18th-century East-African scholar Sayyid Abdallah of Pate, which was well-received in the intellectual communities of the East African coast, appearing in the works of later scholars.

The Hatata is an excellent example of modern practical philosophy, and a monumental work of African philosophy that adds to the wealth of Africa’s intellectual heritage

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The intellectual heritage of Africa includes not just philosophy, but also scientific works such as the mathematical treatise of the 18th century West African scholar Muhammad al-Kashnāwī, which also drew comparisons with contemporary mathematicians in the Western world.

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1. Map by Matteo Salvadore

2.

3. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 6-7, 20-25

4. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 1-16)

5. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 5-7, Traditional Institutions and Traditional Elites by Paulos Milkias pg 81-82

6. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 2 by Claude Sumner pg 119-127, Perspectives in African Philosophy: Teaching and research in philosophy: Africa by UNESCO pg 160-163

7. The Archaeology of the Jesuit Missions in Ethiopia (1557–1632) by Andreu Martínez d'Alòs-Moner and Victor M. Fernández, pg 470-472

8. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 37-38

9. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 56-63, 72, 217, Tirguaamme: An Ethiopian Methodological Contribution for Post-Socialist Knowledge Traditions in Africa by Yirga Gelaw Woldeyes pg 275

10. ‘The African Enlightenment’ by Dag Herbjørnsrud,

11. Ethiopian philosophy pg 56-63, 69, 72, 74-79, 93-94, 309-310,

12. Ethiopian contention on the issue of Rationality by Belayneh Girma

13. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 70-73)

14. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 117-119)

15. Explorations in African Political Thought: Identity, Community, Ethics edited by Teodros Kiros pg 70

16. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 31, 49)

17. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 41-42)

18. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 37-40, 46)

19. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 107,

20. ie; the Ten Commandments minus the Sabbath, which was a very contentious issue in Ethiopia and Zara Yacob also admits that “our intelligence does not confirm or deny it”. The 6 commandments of the New Testament are those mentioned by Jesus in Matthew 25:35–36, and are considered even more important than the Ten, see n. 6,9, pg 87 of the ‘The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob’

21. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 75, 82, 87

22. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 67, 81-83)

23. Explorations in African Political Thought: Identity, Community, Ethics edited by Teodros Kiros pg 72

24. Explorations in African Political Thought: Identity, Community, Ethics edited by Teodros Kiros pg 74 Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 102-104)

25. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 75-77

26. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 78-79)

27. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 100)

28. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 103)

29. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 105-106)

30. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 112-113)

31. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 74)

32. Ethiopian Philosophy, Volume 3 by Claude Sumner pg 105)

33. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 131

34. A Social History of Ethiopia by Richard Pankhurst pg 207-247, Muslim Partners, Catholic Foes by Matteo Salvadore pg 62, Early Portuguese Emigration to the Ethiopian Highlands by Andreu Martínez d'Alòs-Moner pg 24-29.

35. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 156

36. The Hatata Inquiries by Zara Yaqob, Walda Heywat, translated by Ralph Lee with Mehari Worku and Wendy Laura Belcher pg 119)