The forts and castles of Africa: a brief architectural history.
For much of African history, the construction of fortresses and fortified structures was a mostly urban phenomenon associated with large states.
Excavations in Sudan at the site of Kerma —Africa's oldest city outside Egypt, uncovered the ruins of a square fortress measuring 80 meters on each side with connected bastions 16 meters in length, that was constructed around 2500-2400BC. Entire sections of the city of Kerma during its Middle period (2050-1750 BC) and Classic period (1750-1480BC) included an elaborate complex of fortifications and fortresses of varying sizes and typologies, that served multiple functions.1
The construction of fortifications and fortresses in ancient Nubia continued during the Napatan and Meroitic periods of Kush (750BC-360CE), as well as in the medieval period. The entire length of the Nubian Nile valley is dotted with the ruins of walled cities and fortresses, most notably; the walled capitals of Meroe and Old Dongola, as well as the fortresses at Qasr Ibrim, Hisn al-Bab, Gala Abu Ahmed, Umm Marrahi, Shofein and Umm Ruweim.2
(left) Plan of the Early Kerma city highlighting the square fortress (right) the northern area of the secondary urban complex during Classic Kerma that was transformed into a virtual fortress. Images and captions by C. Bonnet.
The late meroitic/post meroitic fort of Umm Ruweim 1 in Sudan. image by M. Szmit.3
the ruins of the Nubian fortress at Hisn al-Bab in Lower Nubia, Egypt.4
Beyond the Nile valley, Fortifications and fortresses were also constructed across most parts of the continent.
In the northern Horn of Africa, the walled cities of Gondar, Harar, and Zeila were typical of the region's urban settlements, especially Harar, whose massive walls, towers, and ramparts survive to the present day. Large fortresses were also constructed across the region, most notably at Taleh in Somaliland and the numerous forts of the Majerteen kingdom at Bender Gasim, Alula, and Hafun.
Majeerteen fort at Bender Gasim (Bandar Cassim), ca. 1891, Somaliland. Archivio fotografico, Italy.
Fortress at Silsilad, Taleh, Somaliland. The National Archives UK
Section of the old city wall, Harar, Ethiopia.
Further south along the East African coast, the typical Swahili and Comorian settlement was a city or town enclosed by a perimeter wall with towers. These include; the city of Qanbalu (Pemba in Tanzania), which according to a 10th-century account, was surrounded by a city wall that gave it the appearance of a castle.
Other walled cities include Kilwa (Tanzania), Gede, Malindi, Pate, and Siyu (Kenya), as well as at Mahilaka and Mazalagem (Mozambique); and at Itsandramdjini, Ntsaweni and Fumbuni (Grande Comore). Fortresses were also constructed at Husuni Ndogo (in Kilwa and Sanjé ya Kati (Tanzania) and at Siyu, as well as at Itsandra (Grande Comore) and Mutsamudu (Nzwani).5
Plan of Gede, showing shape of enclosure walls to northeast. image by S. Pradines.
West Rampart, Ntsaweni, Grande Comore. image by Charles Viaut et al.
The fortress at Mutsamudu, Nzwani (Anjouan)
Central and southern Africa is also dotted with numerous walled cities and towns. The best known among these are the hundreds of walled settlements of the Zimbabwe tradition such as Great Zimbabwe, Matendera, and Naletale (in Zimbabwe); as well as similar stone ruins in South Africa and eastern Botswana.
In central Africa, the best known of the walled capitals was the city of Mbanza Kongo (in Angola), which in the 16th century, was surrounded by a stone wall, but the more common type of walled capital was surrounded by a stockade, similar to field fortresses first documented in 16th century Ndongo.6 These stockades were common across the region, from Angola to Zambia, Congo, Uganda, and Tanzania where they were known as 'bomas'.7 The largest and strongest of these could enclose thousands of homes eg Msiri's boma at Bunkeya (D.R.Congo). Hillforts were also constructed in south-east Africa8, eg at Chawomera and Nyangwe in Zimbabwe.
the Ruins of Naletale, Zimbabwe with its square battlements and profusely decorated walls.
the walled capital of Mbanza Kongo, Angola. engraving by Olfert Dapper ca. 1668.
A boma in the Katanga region, D.R.Congo. ca. 1892 engraving by Édouard Charton
The hilltop fort of Chawomera in Zimbabwe.
In West Africa, walled cities can be found across the region from the Sahel to the Coast, including the Hausa cities of Kano and Zaria (Nigeria), the Kotoko towns of Logone and Gulfey (in Cameroon and Chad), the cities of Djenne and Sikasso (Mali), the old towns Tichitt and Wadan (Mauritania), as well as the cities of; Abomey (Benin), Oyo-ile and Benin city (Nigeria).
West Africa is also dotted with numerous fortresses, commonly called 'Tata' in the westernmost regions and 'Qasr' or 'Ribat' in the central regions. These include the forts associated with the empires of Segu and Tukulor, the ribats of the Sokoto caliphate in northern Nigeria, and the medieval qasrs of the Kawar oases of Niger.
Walls of Kano, Nigeria.
Umar Tal’s Stone fortress of Koniakari. ca 1890, Mali. Quai Branly.
The Qasr of Djado, Niger.
These various forms of African fortifications had multiple functions, that weren't limited to defense.
The walls of Meroe and the ruined cities of the Zimbabwe tradition had no military function, but more likely functioned as symbolic displays of power, or in the case of Meroe, to separate the elite section of the city.9 The walls of Djenne, Kilwa, and Manda were primarily built to keep out flood waters from the river and sea10, while some of the larger fortifications in West Africa were constructed for ideological/political reasons.11
Its in this context that such ‘defensive’ architecture influenced the construction of monuments for the elites such as fortified houses or castles in parts of the continent.
These include; the castle-houses and ‘diffis’ of the middle Nile valley from the era of Meroitic Kush to the Islamic period; the fortified palaces of west Africa which were derived from its defensive architecture12; the fortified palaces and houses of the Swahili (eg at Kilwa and Kua, and the Tembe houses of the interior); and the famous castles of Gondar in Ethiopia.
fortified palace of Makutani, Kilwa, Tanzania
castle of Kush's governor at Natole (Karanog), lower Nubia, Egypt.
castle of Fasiladas in Gondar, Ethiopia.
While this brief overview of African fortifications covers those constructed by the continent's larger and better-known historical cities and kingdoms, similar architectural monuments were constructed by small-scale, rural societies on the peripheries of the large states.
Beginning in the 16th century, communities straddling the borders of Benin, Togo, and Ghana constructed large fortress-houses, some of which are adorned with towering turrets and look like small castles.
My latest Patreon article explores the function of these rural castles that were recently elevated to UNESCO World Heritage status, and the history of the communities which built them.
Please subscribe to read about it here:
The Black Kingdom of the Nile By Charles Bonnet pg 11-50
Mighty Kingdoms and their Forts: The Role of Fortified Sites in the Fall of Meroe and Rise of Medieval Realms in Upper Nubia by Mariusz Drzewiecki, The power of walls. Fortifications in ancient Northeastern Africa edited by Friederike Jesse, Carola Vogel
Mighty Kingdoms and their Forts: The Role of Fortified Sites in the Fall of Meroe and Rise of Medieval Realms in Upper Nubia by Mariusz Drzewiecki pg 116.
Hisn al-Bab. A new project of the Austrian Archaeological Institute/Cairo Branch by Pamela Rose, The power of walls. Fortifications in ancient Northeastern Africa edited by Friederike Jesse, Carola Vogel pg 251-266
The Swahili World edited by Stephanie Wynne-Jones, Adria LaViolette pg 195-196, 211-212, 287-288, Swahili pre-modern warfare and violence in the Indian Ocean by Stephane Pradines pg 261-270, The Comoro Islands: Struggle Against Dependency in the Indian Ocean by M. D. D. Newitt pg 22,
Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800 By John Kelly Thornton pg 110-112.
The Lake Regions of Central Equatorial Africa, with Notices of the Lunar Mountains and the Sources of the White Nile by Richard F. Burton (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1859) pg 181, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile by John Hanning Speke (Harper & brothers, 1868) pg 114, 124, 131-145, Through the Dark Continent: Or, The Sources of the Nile Around the Great Lakes of Equatorial Africa, and Down the Livingstone River to the Atlantic Ocean, by Henry Morton Stanley (Harper, 1879) pg 104-105, 202, 222, 286.
The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States By Innocent Pikirayi pg 187-191, 231
The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization By László Török pg 516-517.
The least of their inhabited villages are fortified”: the walled settlements of Segou by Kevin C. MacDonald pg 365-366, The Swahili World edited by Stephanie Wynne-Jones, Adria LaViolette pg 287-288.
The least of their inhabited villages are fortified”: the walled settlements of Segou by Kevin C. MacDonald pg 347-348, 356-360
Making and Remaking Mosques in Senegal By Cleo Cantone pg 63-65)
This is truly amazing stuff, although I think Buhen should've been included.